Cycle 1: Art Study [Term 1]
Byzantine Mosaics & Frescoes (330-1453)
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On Byzantine Mosaics & Frescoes
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“Mosaics were one of the most popular forms of art in the Byzantine Empire. They were extensively used to depict religious subjects on the interior of churches within the Empire and remained a popular form of expression from 6th century to the end of the Empire in the 15th century. After the fall of the Empire, many mosaics underwent destruction but many remained well-preserved and are extant to this day. The mosaic art of the Byzantine Empire exerted a significant influence on the Muslim art during the Omayyad and Abbasid caliphate and later in the time of Ottoman Empire.
Mosaics were initially used to depict religious figures such as Christ as well as different scenes from the Bible.The Emperor Constantine adopted Christianity and in 330 moved his capital from Rome to Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul), at the eastern frontier of the Roman Empire. Christianity flourished and gradually supplanted the Greco-Roman gods that had once defined Roman religion and culture. This religious shift dramatically affected the art that was created across the empire. Subsequently, the mosaics came to depict non-religious subjects as well.
Constantinople was the richest repository of Byzantine mosaics throughout the Empire’s history. The city was sacked in the 13th century and many notable buildings damaged. These buildings, including the Hagia Sophia church, the Pammakaristos Monastery, were restored later in the century and embellished with a new set of mosaics. Notable examples of original Byzantine mosaics of this period include those used in the decoration of the Chora Church in Constantinople.
By the time of Justinian’s reign in the 6th century, mosaics were being commissioned directly by the Emperor himself as well as the top bureaucracy. During Justinian’s rule, Italy came under the Byzantine rule and Justinian made the city of Ravenna his administrative centre. It was during this period that many grand structures were built in the city and these buildings were adorned with exquisite mosaics. These include the mosaics in Church of San Vitale, and the Basilica of Sant-Apollinare. The earliest of these mosaics in Ravenna were commissioned directly by Justinian or his wife. But the trend continued over subsequent centuries and many iconic mosaics of Ravenna date to 7th century.
During the 8th century, the Byzantine rulers decreed the use of any icons to be heretic. This included the depiction of religious figures which had been the dominant theme of Byzantine mosaics in previous centuries. As a consequence, many of the mosaics created during the previous centuries were destroyed during this period. After the ban on icons was lifted in the Empire, the creation of mosaics underwent a rapid revival. It was during this period from the 9th to 11th centuries that some of the most magnificent Byzantine mosaics were created. Most notable examples of mosaics during this period were made on the interior of the Hosios Loukas Monastery as well as the Nea Moni Monastery.
Between 1204 and 1261, the Byzantine Empire suffered another crisis: the Latin Occupation. Crusaders from Western Europe invaded and captured Constantinople in 1204, temporarily toppling the empire in an attempt to bring the eastern empire back into the fold of western Christendom. By 1261 the Byzantine Empire was free of its western occupiers and stood as an independent empire once again, albeit markedly weakened. The breadth of the empire had shrunk, and so had its power. Nevertheless Byzantium survived until the Ottomans took Constantinople in 1453. In spite of this period of diminished wealth and stability, the arts continued to flourish in the Late Byzantine period, much as it had before. Byzantine art and culture continued to live on in its far-reaching outposts, as well as in Greece, Italy, and the Ottoman Empire, where it had flourished for so long. The Russian Empire, which was first starting to emerge around the time Constantinople fell, carried on as the heir of Byzantium. Similarly, in Italy, when the Renaissance was first emerging, it borrowed heavily from the traditions of Byzantium."
*Source: https://www.wikiart.org/en/byzantine-mosaics
Byzantine Frescoes
Frescoes, paintings on wet plaster, were another common form of decoration in Byzantine churches and monasteries. They depicted biblical narratives, saints, and scenes from the life of Christ and the Virgin Mary. Frescoes were arranged in a hierarchical manner, with the most sacred figures depicted in the highest spaces, such as domes and apses.
Week 1:
Apse in Basilica of Sant’ Apollinare - Ravenna, Italy [Image]
Ravenna was an important Roman and Byzantine city in northern Italy and, in the 5th–6th centuries, one of the most important centers of Christianity in the West. Basilica di Sant'Apollinare in Classe was built in the 6th century over the traditional burial place of St. Apollinaris, Ravenna’s first bishop, and was consecrated in 549; its magnificent apse mosaic reflects the city’s close connection with the Byzantine Empire. (Note: an apse is the focal point of the church, behind the altar).
Read more about The Mosaic Apse of Sant’Apollinaire in Classe, Ravenna in Orthodox Arts Journal, here.
Take Note of:
Christ's cross, with medallion of Christ’s image in center (look closely in the center)
St. Apollinaris (the bishop) with arms raised in prayer
Twelve sheep representing the Apostles
Three sheep beneath the Cross: Peter, James, and John
Deep blue sky and brilliant gold
Green earthly landscape below
The four Bishops of Ravenna in between the windows
Week 2:
Lamb of God Mosaic (Basilica of San Vitale) - Ravenna, Italy [Image]
The Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna is a 6th-century Byzantine church, famous for its magnificent mosaics and its unusual octagonal design. It was consecrated in 548 and is one of the finest surviving examples of Byzantine art in the West (see following page).
Take Note of:
Christ as the “Lamb of God” in the center of the vaulted ceiling directly above the altar
Wreath encircling the Lamb symbolizing Christ and his eternal victory over death
The wreath encircling it bears fruits that resemble figs
Twelve sheep surrounding Him
The central wreath is supported by angels in the four quadrants
Four angels support the central wreath while standing on blue globes that represent the heavens
Four peacocks stand near the base of the pillars, acting as ancient symbols for rebirth and immortality
Among the leaf designs surrounding them are rams, stags, and peacocks – creatures traditionally used as symbols of Jesus Christ.
Repeated patterns and symmetry
Week 3:
Transfiguration of Christ Mosaic (Saint Catherine's Monastery) - Sinai, Egypt [Image]
Located in the Monastery of Saint Catherine (or officially, Monastery of the Transfiguration), Sinai, Egypt, in the eastern apse of the great basilica.
Take Note of:
Christ radiant at the center
His face shining like the sun, and His garments as white as light
The brilliant, transparent beams emanating out, symbolizing His divine, uncreated nature
Moses and Elijah stand, speaking with Christ
Apostles Peter, James, and John are prostrate, overcome with the dazzling brightness of the revelation
Strong contrast between Christ's light and the darker surroundings
Gold and deep blue tones
Medallions depicting the apostles are above, and medallions depicting the prophets are below
Week 4:
Theotokos of the Apse Mosaic (Hosios Loukas Monastery) - Greece [Image]
Located in the apse of Hosios Loukas Monastery, one of Greece's most important surviving Byzantine monastic complexes. Its churches are known for their elaborate mosaics, marble decoration and sophisticated architecture. The monastery is part of a UNESCO World Heritage listing.
Take Note of:
The Theotokos is seated on a byzantine-style backless throne with the infant Jesus on her lap.
Mary's deep blue-black outer garment, known as a maphorion (with cross-shaped ornaments)
The letters ΜΡ and ΘΥ beside Mary's halo abbreviate Mētēr Theou, meaning “Mother of God.”
The mosaic is made from small pieces of coloured glass and gold tesserae (small pieces of glass with gold surfaces create the luminous background).
The figures in front of the brilliant, shimmering field of gold, depicts them in a timeless, heavenly realm
This apse position links Christ's physical birth and body with the bread and wine of the Eucharist taking place at the altar below
The forms of Christ and the Theotokos are rendered with clean, outlines and simple details, focusing our attention on spiritual presence rather than earthly realism
Week 5:
Emperor Justinian & Empress Theodora Mosaics (Basilica of San Vitale) - Ravenna, Italy [Image 1/ Image 2]
In the basilica of San Vitale (Ravenna, Italy) are the two famous mosaic panels of Emperor Justinian and Empress Theodora, at the foot of the apse. They were completed in 547.
Take Note of:
Justinian standing in the middle, with soldiers on his right and clergy on his left, emphasising that he is the leader of both church and state of his empire.
He is clad in Tyrian purple with a golden halo, standing next to court officials, generals Belisarius and Narses, Bishop Maximian, palatinae guards, and deacons.
He holds a large gold paten which he offers in the direction of Christ.
Empress Theodora stands solemn and formal, with a golden halo, crown and jewels, and a group of court women as well as eunuchs.
The two women standing beside Theodora are traditionally identified as Antonina, the wife of Belisarius, and their daughter Ioannina.
Week 6:
Hospitality and Sacrifice of
Abraham Mosaic (Basilica of San Vitale) - Ravenna, Italy [Image]
A foundational Early Byzantine masterpiece located in the lunette of the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy. Based on Genesis 18:1–15, this section shows Abraham welcoming three celestial visitors (traditionally interpreted as a prefiguration of the Holy Trinity) under the Oak of Mamre.
Take Note of:
Abraham with the three visitors
Sarah stands laughing in the doorway behind (in the full mosaic)
Abraham serves a prepared calf and the guests dine on bread loaves distinctly incised with crosses, which prefigures the Eucharist
Abraham's posture of welcome
The right panel (based on Genesis 22:1–18), depicts Abraham holding a knife over Isaac on a rustic altar, halted at the final moment by the hand of God emerging from heaven above a small ram
Paired with the adjacent altar mosaic of Abel and Melchizedek, these Old Testament scenes serve as a complex typological precursor to Christ’s ultimate sacrifice on the cross
Week 7:
Christ Pantocrator Mosaic (Hagia Sophia) - Constanople/ Istanbul, Türkiye [Image]
Hagia Sophia, the Church of Holy Wisdom, is an ancient cathedral of the Church of Constantinople located in modern-day Istanbul, Türkiye. It was completed under Emperor Justinian I in 537.
Take Note of:
Christ Pantocrator means “Ruler of All” or “Almighty,” emphasizing Christ's divine power and authority.
The composition is an example of the Deësis, a traditional Byzantine image of Christ accompanied by figures who pray for humanity.
Christ is in the center of the Deësis between the Theotokos and John the Forerunner in the south gallery.
Christ raises His right hand in a gesture of blessing and holds a Gospel book in His left hand.
A gold background surrounds the figures, symbolizing the heavenly realm
The mosaic is made from small pieces of glass and gold tesserae.
It dates to ~1261 AD, following the Byzantine recapture of Constantinople from Latin occupation.
The lower portions of the mosaic have been lost or damaged, but the faces remain remarkably expressive.
The monumental scale of the figures emphasizes their spiritual importance.
The mosaic reflects the Late Byzantine interest in more naturalistic facial expressions, and three-dimensional modelling.
Week 8:
Dome of the Parecclesion Fresco (Chora Church) - Constanople/ Istanbul, Türkiye [Image]
The Chora Church is a historic Byzantine church renowned for its elaborate mosaics and frescoes. Its most famous decorations date to the early 14th century (late Byzantine period). The dome fresco is in the parecclesion, a side chapel used for burials and memorial services.
Take Note of:
Fresco technique: The pigments were applied to plaster, allowing the paintings to become part of the architectural surface.
The Theotokos and Christ Child appear in a central medallion at the top of the dome.
Angels surround the central image, forming a heavenly court that honours the Virgin and Child.
Twelve angels occupy the curved sections between the dome's windows, creating a sense of order and symmetry.
Four Byzantine hymnographers appear in the pendentives beneath the dome (St. John of Damascus, St. Cosmas of Maiuma, St. Joseph the Hymnographer, St. Theophanes Graptos); they composed hymns used in Orthodox worship and memorial services.
Rich colours and detailed painting: The fresco uses carefully modelled figures, flowing garments and contrasting colours to create depth and movement.
The dome forms part of a wider design featuring Old Testament scenes understood as prefigurations of Christ and the Virgin, alongside images of resurrection and the Last Judgment.
Week 9:
Anastasis Fresco (Chora Church) - Constanople/ Istanbul, Türkiye [Image]
This fresco in the historic Chora Church is located in the apse of the parecclesion (a side chapel used for burials and memorial services). The scene depicts Christ descending into the realm of the dead to defeat Death and rescue humanity.
Take Note of:
The Anastasis means “Resurrection” in Greek and is also known as the Harrowing of Hell, the event in which Christ descends into Hades after His crucifixion to free the souls held there.
Christ wears brilliant white robes, symbolizing purity, divine glory and victory over death.
Adam and Eve being raised from their tombs by Christ
The broken gates of Hades lie beneath Christ's feet, with scattered locks, bolts and keys
The bound figure of Hades lies beneath Christ, representing the defeated power of death and the underworld.
Old Testament figures stand on either side of Christ, including King David, King Solomon and John the Forerunner, alongside other righteous figures awaiting redemption.
Christ's wide stance, outstretched arms and sweeping garments create a sense of energy and action, unlike the more rigid figures of earlier Byzantine art.
Connection to the Last Judgment: The Anastasis forms part of a larger decorative programme focused on resurrection, salvation and the fate of souls after death.
Week 10:
Theotokos & Child Apse Mosaic (Hagia Sophia) - Constanople/ Istanbul, Türkiye [Image]
The 9th century mosaic of the Theotokos and Christ is located in the apse semi-dome of Hagia Sophia. It was uncovered in 867 by Photius the Patriarch.
Take Note of:
The Theotokos is enthroned, with her right hand on the shoulder of the Child Christ who is seated in her lap
Her left hand holds a small, cloth handkerchief, which is on Christ’s knee
She is wearing imperial dark violet and a mantle called a maphorion
Christ wears a tunic and robe with sandals - all of gold
They are seated on a the golden, backless throne of the Byzantine Emperors (emphasizing the dignity and elevated status of the Theotokos as the Mother of God).
This mosaic was the first big image they put on the walls of the church after the end of iconoclasm.
It was accompanied by an inscription that alluded to Iconoclasm: “The images which the imposters [i.e. the iconoclasts] had cast down here pious emperors have again set up.”
This mosaic was not covered up after the Muslim conquest and was visible for almost 300 years after 1453, until it was covered over around 1750
Week 11:
Moses Before the Burning Bush Mosaic (Saint Catherine's Monastery) - Sinai, Egypt [Image]
Located at Saint Catherine's Monastery, it stands at the foot of Mount Sinai, a sacred site associated with Moses and his encounter with God. The mosaic is located high on the wall above the apse of the monastery's main church, alongside a scene of Moses receiving the Tablets of the Law. It is a small scene above the apse, to the upper left of the central Transfiguration scene.
Take Note of:
The scene depicts the moment when God appears to Moses in a bush that burns without being consumed by the flames.
Moses removing his sandals: Moses loosens or removes his sandals in obedience because he is standing on holy ground.
Flames emerge from the bush without destroying it, symbolizing God's miraculous presence.
The scene represents a theophany, or a manifestation of God to humanity.
The mosaic appears above the Transfiguration of Christ (Wk. 3), connecting God's revelation to Moses in the Old Testament with the revelation of Christ's divine nature in the New Testament.
The bush that burns without being consumed became a symbol of the Theotokos, who bore Christ while remaining a virgin.
Extras:
Emperor Constantine I, Presenting a Model of the City to the Blessed Virgin Mary (Hagia Sophia) - Constanople/ Istanbul, Türkiye [Image]
Christ as a Warrior. Ego Sum Via, Veritas Et Vita (Archbishop's Chapel) - Ravenna, Italy [Image]
Cappella Arcivescovile (Archbishop's Chapel) - Ravenna, Italy [Image]
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